Numbers in brackets in the text link to these sources. Sources 1–43 are listed in the order they're first cited in Part 1; sources 44 onward support Part 2 and later additions.

  1. Esposito S, et al. Synthesis and characterization of the N-terminal acetylated 17-23 fragment of thymosin beta 4 identified in TB-500, a product suspected to possess doping potential. Drug Test Anal. 2012;4(9):733–738. PMID 22962027. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22962027/

  2. Ho EN, et al. Doping control analysis of TB-500, a synthetic version of an active region of thymosin β4, in equine urine and plasma by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A. 2012;1265:57–69. PMID 23084823. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23084823/

  3. FDA. Evaluation of TB-500-Related Bulk Drug Substances (TB-500 (Free Base) and TB-500 acetate), dated May 15, 2026. FDA Briefing Document, Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee, July 23–24, 2026. (Also the source for the forum study it cites: Pineau T, et al. Forensic Sci Int. 2016;268:103–115.) https://www.fda.gov/media/193349/download

  4. Anvisa (Brazil). Resolução-RE nº 3.947, de 2 de outubro de 2026. Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1, nº 189, October 6, 2026, pp. 244–245 (in Portuguese). https://www.in.gov.br/web/dou/-/resolucao-re-n-3.947-de-2-de-outubro-de-2026-736564457 Official Anvisa notice: "Anvisa proíbe venda de insulina e tirzepatida irregulares," October 6, 2026 (in Portuguese). https://www.gov.br/anvisa/pt-br/assuntos/noticias-anvisa/2026/anvisa-proibe-venda-de-insulina-e-tirzepatida-irregulares-1

  5. Treadwell T, et al. The regenerative peptide thymosin β4 accelerates the rate of dermal healing in preclinical animal models and in patients. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2012;1270:37–44. PMID 23050815. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23050815/

  6. Sosne G, et al. Biological activities of thymosin beta4 defined by active sites in short peptide sequences. FASEB J. 2010;24(7):2144–2151. PMID 20179146. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20179146/

  7. Malinda KM, et al. Thymosin beta4 accelerates wound healing. J Invest Dermatol. 1999;113(3):364–368. PMID 10469335. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10469335/

  8. Bock-Marquette I, et al. Thymosin beta4 activates integrin-linked kinase and promotes cardiac cell migration, survival and cardiac repair. Nature. 2004;432:466–472. PMID 15565145. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15565145/

  9. Smart N, et al. Thymosin beta4 induces adult epicardial progenitor mobilization and neovascularization. Nature. 2007;445:177–182. PMID 17108969. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17108969/

  10. Philp D, et al. The actin binding site on thymosin beta4 promotes angiogenesis. FASEB J. 2003;17(14):2103–2105. PMID 14500546. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14500546/

  11. Philp D, et al. Thymosin beta 4 and a synthetic peptide containing its actin-binding domain promote dermal wound repair in db/db diabetic mice and in aged mice. Wound Repair Regen. 2003;11(1):19–24. PMID 12581423. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12581423/

  12. McGuire F, et al. Thymosin Beta-4 and TB-500 in Tissue Healing, Regeneration, and Musculoskeletal Repair: A Scoping Review. Appl Sci. 2026;16(12):6202. DOI 10.3390/app16126202. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/16/12/6202

  13. WADA 2026 Prohibited List (section S2.3). https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/2025-09/2026list_en_final_clean_september_2025.pdf

  14. FDA. Certain bulk drug substances for use in compounding that may present significant safety risks (checked October 31, 2026; lists TB-500 among withdrawn nominations; BPC-157's Category 2 and withdrawal history covered in Issue #2). https://www.fda.gov/drugs/human-drug-compounding/certain-bulk-drug-substances-use-compounding-may-present-significant-safety-risks

  15. Biçer O, et al. Effects of BPC-157 and TB-500 on Achilles tendon healing in rats: a histopathological and biomechanical study. Jt Dis Relat Surg. 2026;37(3):822–837. PMID 42542926. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42542926/

  16. Tewari K, et al. Peptide supplements and their therapeutic applications in sports medicine. Am J Sports Med. 2026 (online August 11, 2026). PMID 42578445. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578445/

  17. Luansritisakul C, et al. Peptides in regenerative medicine: a comprehensive review of clinical applications in tissue repair and chronic pain management. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2026;30(1). PMID 42635865. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42635865/

  18. Sosne G, Dunn SP, Kim C. Thymosin β4 significantly improves signs and symptoms of severe dry eye in a phase 2 randomized trial. Cornea. 2015;34(5):491–496. PMID 25826322. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25826322/

  19. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01393132 (Tβ4 eye drops vs. vehicle in severe dry eye, 9 participants, completed), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT01393132

  20. Sosne G, Ousler GW. Thymosin beta 4 ophthalmic solution for dry eye: a randomized, placebo-controlled, Phase II clinical trial conducted using the controlled adverse environment (CAE) model. Clin Ophthalmol. 2015;9:877–884. PMID 26056426. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26056426/

  21. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01387347 (Tβ4 eye drops in dry eye, 72 participants, completed), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT01387347

  22. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02597803 (RGN-259 in dry eye, 317 participants, completed, no results posted), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT02597803

  23. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02974907 (RGN-259 in dry eye, 601 participants, completed, results posted without statistical analysis), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT02974907

  24. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03937882 (RGN-259 in dry eye (ARISE-3), 700 participants enrolled, completed, results first posted August 28, 2026, without statistical analysis), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT03937882

  25. Sosne G, et al. 0.1% RGN-259 (thymosin ß4) ophthalmic solution promotes healing and improves comfort in neurotrophic keratopathy patients in a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-masked Phase III clinical trial. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;24(1):554. PMID 36613994. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36613994/

  26. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02600429 (RGN-259 in neurotrophic keratopathy, 18 participants, terminated: business decision), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT02600429

  27. Kruoch Z, et al. Medical and surgical interventions for neurotrophic keratopathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2025;12:CD015723. PMID 41347649. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41347649/

  28. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05555589 (RGN-259 in neurotrophic keratopathy, 70 participants estimated, listed as recruiting), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05555589

  29. Guarnera G, et al. The effect of thymosin treatment of venous ulcers. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1194:207–212. PMID 20536470. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20536470/

  30. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00832091 (Tβ4 in venous stasis ulcers, 72 participants, completed), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT00832091

  31. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00382174 (Tβ4 in pressure ulcers, 72 participants, completed), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT00382174

  32. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00311766 (Tβ4 in epidermolysis bullosa, terminated: lack of patient availability and drug expiration), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT00311766

  33. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03578029 (RGN-137 gel in epidermolysis bullosa, terminated: business decision), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT03578029

  34. Ruff D, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled, single and multiple dose study of intravenous thymosin beta4 in healthy volunteers. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1194:223–229. PMID 20536472. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20536472/

  35. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01311518 (injectable Tβ4 in acute myocardial infarction, withdrawn: trial never initiated), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT01311518

  36. Wang X, et al. A first-in-human, randomized, double-blind, single- and multiple-dose, phase I study of recombinant human thymosin β4 in healthy Chinese volunteers. J Cell Mol Med. 2021;25(17):8222–8228. PMID 34346165. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34346165/

  37. Zhang Y, et al. Recombinant human thymosin beta 4 improves ischemic cardiac dysfunction in mice and patients with acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction after reperfusion. Cardiovasc Res. 2025;121(17):2747–2758. PMID 41229390. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41229390/

  38. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT07586865 (recombinant Tβ4 (NL005) in acute myocardial infarction, 189 participants, not yet recruiting), checked October 28, 2026 (API v2). https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT07586865

  39. Shah R, et al. Thymosin β4 inhibits PDGF-BB induced activation, proliferation, and migration of human hepatic stellate cells via its actin-binding domain. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2018;18(sup1):177–184. PMID 30063851. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30063851/

  40. Rahaman KA, et al. Simultaneous quantification of TB-500 and its metabolites in in-vitro experiments and rats by UHPLC-Q-Exactive orbitrap MS/MS and their screening by wound healing activities in-vitro. J Chromatogr B. 2024;1235:124033. PMID 38382158. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38382158/

  41. Federal Register, April 16, 2026, FR Doc. 2026-07361 (Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee meeting notice; TB-500 (free base) and TB-500 acetate, wound healing). https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2026/04/16/2026-07361/

  42. Secondary source for the reported TB-500 votes (free base and acetate, each 8–6–1; no official FDA tally posted): FDA Law Blog (Hyman, Phelps & McNamara), July 24, 2026. https://www.thefdalawblog.com/2026/07/peptide-l-wave-pcac-approves-four-bulk-drug-substances-for-the-503a-list/

  43. Secondary source for the reported TB-500 votes (no official FDA tally posted): LumaLex Law, "The July 2026 PCAC Peptide Meeting," July 25, 2026. https://www.lumalexlaw.com/2026/07/25/the-july-2026-pcac-peptide-meeting/

  44. Krug O, et al. Identification of black market products and potential doping agents in Germany 2010–2013. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2014;70(11):1303–1311. PMID 25168622. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25168622/

  45. Delcourt V, et al. TB500/TB1000 and SGF1000: a scientific approach for a better understanding of misbranded and adulterated drugs. Drug Test Anal. 2023;15(4):458–464. PMID 36482504. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36482504/

  46. Goldstein AL, Slater FD, White A. Preparation, assay, and partial purification of a thymic lymphocytopoietic factor (thymosin). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1966;56(3):1010–1017. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.56.3.1010

  47. Low TL, Hu SK, Goldstein AL. Complete amino acid sequence of bovine thymosin beta 4: a thymic hormone that induces terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase activity in thymocyte populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1981;78(2):1162–1166. PMID 6940133. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6940133/

  48. RegeneRx Biopharmaceuticals, Form 10-KSB filed with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, 2002 (company history: incorporated 1982 as Alpha 1 Biomedicals, renamed 2000; thymosin beta-4 program). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/707511/000100515002000501/form10ksb.txt

  49. Racing Medication & Testing Consortium. Thymosin β4 (TB-500) drug bulletin (undated; posted 2016). (Cited for historical documentation only; dosing, sourcing and treatment claims on linked pages are not endorsed.) https://rmtcnet.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/RMTC-TB-500-Drug-Bulletin.pdf

  50. World Anti-Doping Agency. "WADA commends CAS decision to uphold Agency's appeal in AFL case," January 12, 2016 (CAS 2015/A/4059). https://www.wada-ama.org/en/news/wada-commends-cas-decision-uphold-agencys-appeal-afl-case

  51. ABC News (Australia). "CAS upholds WADA appeal against Essendon anti-doping verdict," January 12, 2016. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-01-12/cas-upholds-wada-appeal-essendon-anti-doping-verdict/7081874

  52. Marvel. The Incredible Hulk (1962) #181, cover date November 1974. https://www.marvel.com/comics/issue/17198/incredible-hulk-1962-181

  53. "How To Use BPC-157: A Complete Dummies Guide To Healing The Body Like Wolverine," fitness and biohacking website article, May 16, 2016. (Cited for historical documentation only; dosing, sourcing and treatment claims on linked pages are not endorsed.) https://bengreenfieldlife.com/article/supplements-articles/how-to-use-bpc-157/

  54. "Recover Like Wolverine" peptide stack article, same website, September 17, 2024. (Cited for historical documentation only; dosing, sourcing and treatment claims on linked pages are not endorsed.) https://bengreenfieldlife.com/article/wolverine-peptide-stack/

  55. Lee E, Padgett B. Intra-articular injection of BPC 157 for multiple types of knee pain. Altern Ther Health Med. 2021;27(4):8–13. PMID 34324435. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34324435/

  56. Anvisa (Brazil). Resolução-RE nº 4.035, de 9 de outubro de 2026. Diário Oficial da União, Seção 1, Ed. 194, October 14, 2026, p. 73 (in Portuguese). https://www.in.gov.br/web/dou/-/resolucao-re-n-4.035-de-9-de-outubro-de-2026-738059775 Official Anvisa notice: "Anvisa proíbe canetas de tirzepatida e de retatrutida sem registro," October 14, 2026 (in Portuguese). https://www.gov.br/anvisa/pt-br/assuntos/noticias-anvisa/2026/anvisa-proibe-canetas-de-tirzepatida-e-de-retatrutida-sem-registro

  57. WADA 2010 Prohibited List (section S2). https://www.dshs-koeln.de/web/biochemie/pdf/Dopinglisten/wada_2010_prohibited_list.pdf

  58. USADA, "2018 Prohibited List: Summary of Major Changes," October 2, 2017. https://www.usada.org/athlete-advisory/2018-prohibited-list-summary-of-major-changes/

  59. RegeneRx, "RegeneRx JV Announces Results of ARISE-2 Dry Eye Trial," October 31, 2017 (company announcement; NCT02974907). https://www.regenerx.com/2017-10-31-RegeneRx-JV-Announces-Results-of-ARISE-2-Dry-Eye-Trial

  60. RegeneRx, "RegeneRx Reports Topline Results of ARISE-3 Dry Eye Trial," March 18, 2021 (company announcement; NCT03937882). https://www.regenerx.com/2021-03-18-RegeneRx-Reports-Topline-Results-of-ARISE-3-Dry-Eye-Trial

  61. FDA, Drugs@FDA approval package for Vyleesi (bremelanotide) injection, NDA 210557, approved June 21, 2019. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2019/210557Orig1s000Approv.pdf

  62. FDA. July 23–24, 2026: Meeting of the Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee, meeting page (briefing documents, FDA presentations and video links; no minutes, transcript or official vote tally listed when checked October 31, 2026). https://www.fda.gov/advisory-committees/advisory-committee-calendar/july-23-24-2026-meeting-pharmacy-compounding-advisory-committee-07232026

  63. Froum S, et al. Case report: regenerative peptides for inferior alveolar nerve injury: a narrative review with hypothesis-generating three clinical cases. Front Oral Health. 2026;7:1907109 (online September 30, 2026). PMID 42876687. (Cited for documentation only; dosing and treatment details in the paper are not endorsed.) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42876687/

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